 Daniel Leyva


Fidel Castro's and the US Press:  1956-1961
Were the Militant Colonists and Army Activists of the Algrie franaise movement right wing fanatics and neo-fascists desperately clinging to an oppressive and outdated power structure? Were they men and women fighting to preserve their homes and families at all costs? Perhaps there was some higher, nobler cause within Algrie franaise? They saw themselves as patriots, defying the unjust government of DeGaulle in the spirit and tradition of the French Revolution and the Resistance against the WWII Vichy government. They were defending France against those who hadnt its best interests in mind. The Leftists and later the Gaullists thought otherwise. 
      What were they fighting for? It seems that it was a combination many things: patriotism, conscience, and self- defense, a feeling of betrayal, resistance to change. The list goes on, but it doesnt seem that anyone was fighting for the express purpose of oppressing the Algerians, but rather for a way of life of that they had existed for generations. 
       It is a fact that Algeria was considered part of France and so it would make sense for many to want to keep it that way. It is comparable to the United States Government deciding to give Texas back to Mexico. It is likely that we would see something similar to Algrie franaise in America fighting not to keep the Tejano 
population in their place, but rather to keep Texas American. 
        Before we try to understand why they were fighting, we must take a look at what it was Algrie franaise was fighting for. Just what was this way of life? Lets take a brief look at the history and society of French Algeria.
        France first got involved with Algeria in 1827 when King Charles X decided to attack Algeria in order to build some popular support to prop up his failing government. The invasion of Algeria began in 1827 with a blockade in response to an insult against the French consul to Algiers. In 1830, with the blockade failing, the King decided to physically invade Algeria using a contingency plan developed by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1808. 
        Shortly after the invasion was successfully completed Charles X was deposed and a new, liberal government took power. This government was opposed to the invasion, but was persuaded by the military to stay in Algeria. In addition to national pride and prestige, it would also prevent the English from filling the vacuum that would be left by a complete French withdrawal. 
        In 1834 the occupied territories were annexed as colonies of France. In charge of these colonies was a military government called the "rgime du sabre" (government of the sword), at the head of which was a Governor-general charged with civil and military jurisdiction and responsible to the minister of war.
        The leader of the French invasion force, General Bugeaud de la Pionnerie, became the first Governor-general. He proposed to develop the newest colony of France with the military, envisioning a class of farmer/soldier who would "by means of the sword and the plow, become the vanguard of modernization." This is perhaps not unlike the plan the Romans used in giving their soldiers farms in the lands they conquered.
        He also recognized the need for a civilian population and so began to issue land grants. There were three different categories of land concession. There was land given to the old families with power and influence back home. Other land was granted to religious orders. The Third category was which was to be given to the common settler, often referred to as the petit blancs (little whites, as opposed to the grand blancs who had more money and power). Algeria began to draw immigrants from all over Europe.
        The French, however, did not wait till annexation to start claiming Algeria. Almost immediately following the conquest of Algeria there was a land rush as Europeans began to pour into Algiers to take over or buy at cut-throat prices all sorts of property, including homes, shops, farms, and factories. A French Politician named Bertrand Clauzel, seeing the farming potential of the Mitidja Plain, formed a company to acquire that land in hopes of starting a large scale cotton growing operation.
        By 1847 the European population had grown to 100,000. The bulk of the European minority consisted of French, but there were many others from throughout the Mediterranean world including many Spaniards and Italians. Many of these people were poor or working class and had come to Algeria to escape the poverty and class restrictions of their home country. Others were criminals and political prisoners sent to Algeria in large numbers under sentence in the same manner as English convicts who were sent to Australia. Many of these immigrants took advantage of the land grants and took up farming; others gravitated towards the more urban coastal areas to work in the cities and ports. 
        Throughout the whole period under the rgime du sabre the colonists were calling for a civilian government. The colons had been permitted a limited self-government in areas where Europeans were a substantial part of the population. However, there was constant friction between them and the army. The colons charged that the military held back the colonization process. They that their legal rights were denied under the arbitrary controls imposed on the colony by the military. They insisted on a civil administration for Algeria fully integrated with metropolitan France. 
        Finally, in 1871, with the fall of the second republic, the colonists were given what they had long been clamoring for. A civilian government was finally put into place and the country was placed under the jurisdiction of the Interior Ministry rather than the military. Algeria had finally been assimilated into metropolitan France. Algeria was divided into three departments administered by a Governor-general. This change in status coupled with granting of French citizenship to immigrants in 1865 brought in a massive influx of new immigrants.
        The immigration of Europeans was further encouraged with the passage of an act in 1879 that granted automatic citizenship to the children of European settlers. This act was perhaps one of the most influential in the development of the idea of Algrie franaise. From that point on you begin to see a sort of melting pot effect as has occurred in America. We begin to see the development of a people of diverse backgrounds that become bound together by a common language and a strong attachment to France and its culture.
        The economy of Algeria was developing into a modern European economy consisting of mining, manufacture, agriculture, and trade. Controlled by the Grands Colons, this economy was focused around small industry and a highly developed export trade designed to provide food and raw materials to France in return for capital and consumer goods. 
        As far as agriculture went, Europeans owned about thirty percent of all the arable land. This percentage includes most of the fertile land and most irrigated areas. The modern, or European, sector was run on a commercial basis and meshed with the French market. It supplied wine, citrus, olives, and vegetables.  Wine was in fact big business. Nearly half of the value of European-owned real property was in vineyards by 1914. By contrast, the traditional sector consisted of subsistence cereal production--supplemented by olive, fig, and date growing and stock raising. The land, however, was substandard for raising much of anything.
        As the Europeans took control of the land, the evicted Algerians migrated to the European towns and farms in search of some sort of a living. Unfortunately, very few found work. Most became "derelicts, uprooted from their traditional habitat but unable to find a viable alternative within the modern economy."
         Socially Algeria was a very race conscious society in regard to the distinction between Muslim and white. One reason for this is that there were so many more indigenous people than colonists and there was constant fear of being overwhelmed by shear numbers. "It was, on a Mediterranean scale, similar to what occurred in the United States, except that in the case of the American pioneers, their worst enemy, the Indian, were almost totally to disappear. In Algeria there were more than two and a half million indigenous people."
        Also, as mentioned earlier, the settler of Algeria came from the dregs of society. They were often lower class citizens of their home countries and came to Algeria to 

        
Daniel Leyva
Fidel Castro's and the US Press:  1956-1961
 
        Before we try to understand why they were fighting, we must take a look at what it was Algrie franaise was fighting for. Just what was this way of life? Lets take a brief look at the history and society of French Algeria.
        France first got involved with Algeria in 1827 when King Charles X decided to attack Algeria in order to build some popular support to prop up his failing government. The invasion of Algeria began in 1827 with a blockade in response to an insult against the French consul to Algiers. In 1830, with the blockade failing, the King decided to physically invade Algeria using a contingency plan developed by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1808. 
        Shortly after the invasion was successfully completed Charles X was deposed and a new, liberal government took power. This government was opposed to the invasion, but was persuaded by the military to stay in Algeria. In addition to national pride and prestige, it would also prevent the English from filling the vacuum that would be left by a complete French withdrawal. 
        In 1834 the occupied territories were annexed as colonies of France. In charge of these colonies was a military government called the "rgime du sabre" (government of the sword), at the head of which was a Governor-general charged with civil and military jurisdiction and responsible to the minister of war.
        The leader of the French invasion force, General Bugeaud de la Pionnerie, became the first Governor-general. He proposed to develop the newest colony of France with the military, envisioning a class of farmer/soldier who would "by means of the sword and the plow, become the vanguard of modernization." This is perhaps not unlike the plan the Romans used in giving their soldiers farms in the lands they conquered.
        He also recognized the need for a civilian population and so began to issue land grants. There were three different categories of land concession. There was land given to the old families with power and influence back home. Other land was granted to religious orders. The Third category was which was to be given to the common settler, often referred to as the petit blancs (little whites, as opposed to the grand blancs who had more money and power). Algeria began to draw immigrants from all over Europe.
        The French, however, did not wait till annexation to start claiming Algeria. Almost immediately following the conquest of Algeria there was a land rush as Europeans began to pour into Algiers to take over or buy at cut-throat prices all sorts of property, including homes, shops, farms, and factories. A French Politician named Bertrand Clauzel, seeing the farming potential of the Mitidja Plain, formed a company to acquire that land in hopes of starting a large scale cotton growing operation.
        By 1847 the European population had grown to 100,000. The bulk of the European minority consisted of French, but there were many others from throughout the Mediterranean world including many Spaniards and Italians. Many of these people were poor or working class and had come to Algeria to escape the poverty and class restrictions of their home country. Others were criminals and political prisoners sent to Algeria in large numbers under sentence in the same manner as English convicts who were sent to Australia. Many of these immigrants took advantage of the land grants and took up farming; others gravitated towards the more urban coastal areas to work in the cities and ports. 
        Throughout the whole period under the rgime du sabre the colonists were calling for a civilian government. The colons had been permitted a limited self-government in areas where Europeans were a substantial part of the population. However, there was constant friction between them and the army. The colons charged that the military held back the colonization process. They that their legal rights were denied under the arbitrary controls imposed on the colony by the military. They insisted on a civil administration for Algeria fully integrated with metropolitan France. 
        Finally, in 1871, with the fall of the second republic, the colonists were given what they had long been clamoring for. A civilian government was finally put into place and the country was placed under the jurisdiction of the Interior Ministry rather than the military. Algeria had finally been assimilated into metropolitan France. Algeria was divided into three departments administered by a Governor-general. This change in status coupled with granting of French citizenship to immigrants in 1865 brought in a massive influx of new immigrants.
        The immigration of Europeans was further encouraged with the passage of an act in 1879 that granted automatic citizenship to the children of European settlers. This act was perhaps one of the most influential in the development of the idea of Algrie franaise. From that point on you begin to see a sort of melting pot effect as has occurred in America. We begin to see the development of a people of diverse backgrounds that become bound together by a common language and a strong attachment to France and its culture.
        The economy of Algeria was developing into a modern European economy consisting of mining, manufacture, agriculture, and trade. Controlled by the Grands Colons, this economy was focused around small industry and a highly developed export trade designed to provide food and raw materials to France in return for capital and consumer goods. 
        As far as agriculture went, Europeans owned about thirty percent of all the arable land. This percentage includes most of the fertile land and most irrigated areas. The modern, or European, sector was run on a commercial basis and meshed with the French market. It supplied wine, citrus, olives, and vegetables.  Wine was in fact big business. Nearly half of the value of European-owned real property was in vineyards by 1914. By contrast, the traditional sector consisted of subsistence cereal production--supplemented by olive, fig, and date growing and stock raising. The land, however, was substandard for raising much of anything.
        As the Europeans took control of the land, the evicted Algerians migrated to the European towns and farms in search of some sort of a living. Unfortunately, very few found work. Most became "derelicts, uprooted from their traditional habitat but unable to find a viable alternative within the modern economy."
         Socially Algeria was a very race conscious society in regard to the distinction between Muslim and white. One reason for this is that there were so many more indigenous people than colonists and there was constant fear of being overwhelmed by shear numbers. "It was, on a Mediterranean scale, similar to what occurred in the United States, except that in the case of the American pioneers, their worst enemy, the Indian, were almost totally to disappear. In Algeria there were more than two and a half million indigenous people."
        Also, as mentioned earlier, the settler of Algeria came from the dregs of society. They were often lower class citizens of their home countries and came to Algeria to

On January 1st, 1959 Fidel Castro took control of Cuba, establishing a Marxist government right in America's backyard.  How did he pull it off right under Americas nose? Didnt anyone realize exactly how revolutionary this revolution would actually be?  The answer is no, not really. Through propaganda and manipulation of the US press, Fidel Castro was able to downplay and avert the attention of the Press from role of communist influence and the anti-Americanism that was rampant throughout his 26th of July Movement.   
        This is not to say that he never showed his true colors. If one examines the press coverage of the revolution prior to 1959 you will find many examples of anti-American sentiment in both deed and word. You can also see how Castro was able to maintain the perception that he was going to restore democracy on the island and make Cuba safe for Americans and their money. Within a few years, however, Fidel Castro would change Cuban society in such a drastic and revolutionary way that the United States wouldn't even recognized the country they once considered an informal 49th state (at the time of the revolution there were only 48).
        In examining the sympathy many felt for the revolutionaries in Cuba you must first take a look at the roots of the revolution. Just what were the Cubans revolting against? 
        Cuba had been ruled by Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar for twenty-five years (through puppets 1934-39 and himself 1940-44 and 1952-59), with U.S. support, and was notorious for holding power through manipulation, troops, and assassins. 
        Cubas primary source of income came from sugar, but was augmented by vigorous tourism based on hotels, casinos, and brothels. Yet this prosperity enriched only a few Cubans. For the majority, poverty (especially in the countryside) and lack of public services were appalling: with a national per capita income of $353 in 1958among the highest in Latin Americaunemployment and underemployment were rife, and the average rural worker earned $91 per year. Foreign interests controlled the economy, owning about 75 percent of the arable land, 90 percent of the essential services, and 40 percent of the sugar production. 
        Batista's regime was brutal and corrupt and the Cuban national psyche reached its greatest depths. The stage was set for the Castro revolution of 1959. 
Discus Political Atmosphere in Havana briefly. 
        July 26, 1953, marked the first public activity of the most pending revolution. It was on this day that a group of revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro attacked the Cuban army barracks at Moncada. Castro was the talented and well-educated (lawyer) son of a rich farmer who chose to use his talents to revolutionize Cuba. Castro had been deeply involved in student politics and exposed to nationalism, leftism and revolutionary thought. 
        Following graduation from Havana University, his first direct contact with revolution came in 1948 in Bogot, Colombia. He was in Bogot when the assassination of Jorge Eliecer Gaitn triggered two days of rioting which led to city authorities abdicating. 
